American History - The Colonial Period

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The Colonial Period

NEW PEOPLES

Most settlers who came to America in the 17th century were English, but there were also Dutch, Swedes and Germans in the middle region, a few French Huguenots in South Carolina and elsewhere, slaves from Africa, primarily in the South, and a scattering of Spaniards, Italians and Portuguese throughout the colonies.

After 1680 England ceased to be the chief source of immigration. Thousands of refugees fled continental Europe to escape the path of war. Many left their homelands to avoid the poverty induced by government oppression and absentee-landlordism.

By 1690 the American population had risen to a quarter of a million. From then on, it doubled every 25 years until, in 1775, it numbered more than 2.5 million.

Although a family could move from Massachusetts to Virginia or from South Carolina to Pennsylvania, without major readjustment, distinctions between individual colonies were marked. They were even more so between the three regional groupings of colonies

NEW ENGLAND

New England in the northeast has generally thin, stony soil, relatively little level land, and long winters, making it difficult to make a living from farming. Turning to other pursuits, the New Englanders harnessed water power and established grain mills and sawmills. Good stands of timber encouraged shipbuilding. Excellent harbors promoted trade, and the sea became a source of great wealth. In Massachusetts, the cod industry alone quickly furnished a basis for prosperity.

With the bulk of the early settlers living in villages and towns around the harbors, many New Englanders carried on some kind of trade or business. Common pasture land and woodlots served the needs of townspeople, who worked small farms nearby. Compactness made possible the village school, the village church and the village or town hall, where citizens met to discuss matters of common interest.

The Massachusetts Bay Colony continued to expand its commerce. From the middle of the 17th century onward it grew prosperous, and Boston became one of America's greatest ports.

Oak timber for ships' hulls, tall pines for spars and masts, and pitch for the seams of ships came from the Northeastern forests. Building their own vessels and sailing them to ports all over the world, the ship masters of Massachusetts Bay laid the foundation for a trade that was to grow steadily in importance. By the end of the colonial period, one-third of all vessels under the British flag were built in New England. Fish, ship's stores and wooden ware swelled the exports.

New England shippers soon discovered, too, that rum and slaves were profitable commodities. One of the most enterprising -- if unsavory -- trading practices of the time was the so-called "triangular trade." Merchants and shippers would purchase slaves off the coast of Africa for New England rum, then sell the slaves in the West Indies where they would buy molasses to bring home for sale to the local rum producers.

THE MIDDLE COLONIES

Society in the middle colonies was far more varied, cosmopolitan and tolerant than in New England. In many ways, Pennsylvania and Delaware owed their initial success to William Penn.

Under his guidance, Pennsylvania functioned smoothly and grew rapidly. By 1685 its population was almost 9,000. The heart of the colony was Philadelphia, a city soon to be known for its broad, tree-shaded streets, substantial brick and stone houses, and busy docks. By the end of the colonial period, nearly a century later, 30,000 people lived there, representing many languages, creeds and trades. Their talent for successful business enterprise made the city one of the thriving centers of colonial America.

Though the Quakers dominated in Philadelphia, elsewhere in Pennsylvania others were well represented. Germans became the colony's most skillful farmers. Important, too, were cottage industries such as weaving, shoe making, cabinetmaking and other crafts.

Pennsylvania was also the principal gateway into the New World for the Scots-Irish, who moved into the colony in the early 18th century. "Bold and indigent strangers," as one Pennsylvania official called them, they hated the English and were suspicious of all government. The Scots-Irish tended to settle in the back country, where they cleared land and lived by hunting and subsistence farming.

As mixed as the people were in Pennsylvania, New York best illustrated the polyglot nature of America. By 1646 the population along the Hudson River included Dutch, French, Danes, Norwegians, Swedes, English, Scots, Irish, Germans, Poles, Bohemians, Portuguese and Italians -- the forerunners of millions to come.

The Dutch continued to exercise an important social and economic influence on the New York region long after the fall of New Netherlands and their integration into the British colonial system. Their sharp-stepped, gable roofs became a permanent part of the city's architecture, and their merchants gave Manhattan much of its original bustling, commercial atmosphere.

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES

In contrast to New England and the middle colonies were the predominantly rural southern settlements: Virginia, Maryland, North and South Carolina, and Georgia.

By the late 17th century, Virginia's and Maryland's economic and social structure rested on the great planters and the yeoman farmers. The planters of the tidewater region, supported by slave labor, held most of the political power and the best land. They built great houses, adopted an aristocratic way of life and kept in touch as best they could with the world of culture overseas.

At the same time, yeoman farmers, who worked smaller tracts of land, sat in popular assemblies and found their way into political office. Their outspoken independence was a constant warning to the oligarchy of planters not to encroach too far upon the rights of free men.

Charleston, South Carolina, became the leading port and trading center of the South. There the settlers quickly learned to combine agriculture and commerce, and the marketplace became a major source of prosperity. Dense forests also brought revenue: lumber, tar and resin from the long leaf pine provided some of the best shipbuilding materials in the world. Not bound to a single crop as was Virginia, North and South Carolina also produced and exported rice and indigo, a blue dye obtained from native plants, which was used in coloring fabric. By 1750 more than 100,000 people lived in the two colonies of North and South Carolina.

In the southern-most colonies, as everywhere else, population growth in the back country had special significance. German immigrants and Scots-Irish, unwilling to live in the original tidewater settlements where English influence was strong, pushed inland. Those who could not secure fertile land along the coast, or who had exhausted the lands they held, found the hills farther west a bountiful refuge. Although their hardships were enormous, restless settlers kept coming, and by the 1730s they were pouring into the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. Soon the interior was dotted with farms.

Living on the edge of the Indian country, frontier families built cabins, cleared tracts in the wilderness and cultivated maize and wheat. The men wore leather made from the skin of deer or sheep, known as buckskin; the women wore garments of cloth they spun at home. Their food consisted of venison, wild turkey and fish. They had their own amusements -- great barbecues, dances, housewarmings for newly married couples, shooting matches and contests for making quilted blankets. Quilts remain an American tradition today.

SOCIETY, SCHOOLS AND CULTURE

A significant factor deterring the emergence of a powerful aristocratic or gentry class in the colonies was the fact that anyone in an established colony could choose to find a new home on the frontier. Thus, time after time, dominant tidewater figures were obliged, by the threat of a mass exodus to the frontier, to liberalize political policies, land-grant requirements and religious practices. This movement into the foothills was of tremendous import for the future of America.

Of equal significance for the future were the foundations of American education and culture established during the colonial period. Harvard College was founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Near the end of the century, the College of William and Mary was established in Virginia. A few years later, the Collegiate School of Connecticut, later to become Yale College, was chartered. But even more noteworthy was the growth of a school system maintained by governmental authority. The Puritan emphasis on reading directly from the Scriptures underscored the importance of literacy.

In 1647 the Massachusetts Bay Colony enacted the "ye olde deluder Satan" Act, requiring every town having more than 50 families to establish a grammar school (a Latin school to prepare students for college). Shortly thereafter, all the other New England colonies, except Rhode Island, followed its example.

The first immigrants in New England brought their own little libraries and continued to import books from London. And as early as the 1680s, Boston booksellers were doing a thriving business in works of classical literature, history, politics, philosophy, science, theology and belles-letters. In 1639 the first printing press in the English colonies and the second in North America was installed at Harvard College.

The first school in Pennsylvania was begun in 1683. It taught reading, writing and keeping of accounts. Thereafter, in some fashion, every Quaker community provided for the elementary teaching of its children. More advanced training -- in classical languages, history and literature -- was offered at the Friends Public School, which still operates in Philadelphia as the William Penn Charter School. The school was free to the poor, but parents who could were required to pay tuition.

In Philadelphia, numerous private schools with no religious affiliation taught languages, mathematics and natural science; there were also night schools for adults. Women were not entirely overlooked, but their educational opportunities were limited to training in activities that could be conducted in the home. Private teachers instructed the daughters of prosperous Philadelphians in French, music, dancing, painting, singing, grammar and sometimes even bookkeeping.

In the 18th century, the intellectual and cultural development of Pennsylvania reflected, in large measure, the vigorous personalities of two men: James Logan and Benjamin Franklin. Logan was secretary of the colony, and it was in his fine library that young Franklin found the latest scientific works. In 1745 Logan erected a building for his collection and bequeathed both building and books to the city.

Franklin contributed even more to the intellectual activity of Philadelphia. He formed a debating club that became the embryo of the American Philosophical Society. His endeavors also led to the founding of a public academy that later developed into the University of Pennsylvania. He was a prime mover in the establishment of a subscription library, which he called "the mother of all North American subscription libraries."

In the Southern colonies, wealthy planters and merchants imported private tutors from Ireland or Scotland to teach their children. Others sent their children to school in England. Having these other opportunities, the upper classes in the Tidewater were not interested in supporting public education. In addition, the diffusion of farms and plantations made the formation of community schools difficult. There were a few endowed free schools in Virginia; the Syms School was founded in 1647 and the Eaton School emerged in 1659.

The desire for learning did not stop at the borders of established communities, however. On the frontier, the Scots-Irish, though living in primitive cabins, were firm devotees of scholarship, and they made great efforts to attract learned ministers to their settlements.

Literary production in the colonies was largely confined to New England. Here attention concentrated on religious subjects. Sermons were the most common products of the press. A famous Puritan minister, the Reverend Cotton Mather, wrote some 400 works. His masterpiece, Magnalia Christi Americana, presented the pageant of New England's history. But the most popular single work of the day was the Reverend Michael Wigglesworth's long poem, "The Day of Doom," which described the last judgment in terrifying terms.

In 1704 Cambridge, Massachusetts, launched the colonies' first successful newspaper. By 1745 there were 22 newspapers being published throughout the colonies.

How can you put a limit on learning more? The next section may contain that one little bit of wisdom that changes everything.

In New York, an important step in establishing the principle of freedom of the press took place with the case of Johann Peter Zenger, whose New York Weekly Journal begun in 1733, represented the opposition to the government. After two years of publication, the colonial governor could no longer tolerate Zenger's satirical barbs, and had him thrown into prison on a charge of seditious libel. Zenger continued to edit his paper from jail during his nine-month trial, which excited intense interest throughout the colonies. Andrew Hamilton, the prominent lawyer who defended Zenger, argued that the charges printed by Zenger were true and hence not libelous. The jury returned a verdict of not guilty, and Zenger went free.

The prosperity of the towns, which prompted fears that the devil was luring society into pursuit of worldly gain, produced a religious reaction in the 1730s that came to be known as the Great Awakening. Its inspiration came from two sources: George Whitefield, a Wesleyan revivalist who arrived from England in 1739, and Jonathan Edwards, who originally served in the Congregational Church in Northampton, Massachusetts.

Whitefield began a religious revival in Philadelphia and then moved on to New England. He enthralled audiences of up to 20,000 people at a time with histrionic displays, gestures and emotional oratory. Religious turmoil swept throughout New England and the middle colonies as ministers left established churches to preach the revival.

Among those influenced by Whitefield was Edwards, and the Great Awakening reached its culmination in 1741 with his sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." Edwards did not engage in theatrics, but delivered his sermons in a quiet, thoughtful manner. He stressed that the established churches sought to deprive Christianity of its emotional content. His magnum opus, Of Freedom of Will (1754), attempted to reconcile Calvinism with the Enlightenment.

The Great Awakening gave rise to evangelical denominations and the spirit of revivalism, which continue to play significant roles in American religious and cultural life. It weakened the status of the established clergy and provoked believers to rely on their own conscience. Perhaps most important, it led to the proliferation of sects and denominations, which in turn encouraged general acceptance of the principle of religious toleration.

EMERGENCE OF COLONIAL GOVERNMENT

In all phases of colonial development, a striking feature was the lack of controlling influence by the English government. All colonies except Georgia emerged as companies of shareholders, or as feudal proprietorships stemming from charters granted by the Crown. The fact that the king had transferred his immediate sovereignty over the New World settlements to stock companies and proprietors did not, of course, mean that the colonists in America were necessarily free of outside control. Under the terms of the Virginia Company charter, for example, full governmental authority was vested in the company itself. Nevertheless, the crown expected that the company would be resident in England. Inhabitants of Virginia, then, would have no more voice in their government than if the king himself had retained absolute rule.

For their part, the colonies had never thought of themselves as subservient. Rather, they considered themselves chiefly as commonwealths or states, much like England itself, having only a loose association with the authorities in London. In one way or another, exclusive rule from the outside withered away. The colonists -- inheritors of the traditions of the Englishman's long struggle for political liberty -- incorporated concepts of freedom into Virginia's first charter. It provided that English colonists were to exercise all liberties, franchises and immunities "as if they had been abiding and born within this our Realm of England." They were, then, to enjoy the benefits of the Magna Carta and the common law. In 1618 the Virginia Company issued instructions to its appointed governor providing that free inhabitants of the plantations should elect representatives to join with the governor and an appointive council in passing ordinances for the welfare of the colony.

These measures proved to be some of the most far-reaching in the entire colonial period. From then on, it was generally accepted that the colonists had a right to participate in their own government. In most instances, the king, in making future grants, provided in the charter that the free men of the colony should have a voice in legislation affecting them. Thus, charters awarded to the Calverts in Maryland, William Penn in Pennsylvania, the proprietors in North and South Carolina and the proprietors in New Jersey specified that legislation should be enacted with "the consent of the freemen."

In New England, for many years, there was even more complete self-government than in the other colonies. Aboard the Mayflower, the Pilgrims adopted an instrument for government called the "Mayflower Compact," to "combine ourselves together into a civil body politic for our better ordering and preservation...and by virtue hereof [to] enact, constitute, and frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices...as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony...."

Although there was no legal basis for the Pilgrims to establish a system of self-government, the action was not contested and, under the compact, the Plymouth settlers were able for many years to conduct their own affairs without outside interference.

A similar situation developed in the Massachusetts Bay Company, which had been given the right to govern itself. Thus, full authority rested in the hands of persons residing in the colony. At first, the dozen or so original members of the company who had come to America attempted to rule autocratically. But the other colonists soon demanded a voice in public affairs and indicated that refusal would lead to a mass migration.

Faced with this threat, the company members yielded, and control of the government passed to elected representatives. Subsequently, other New England colonies -- such as Connecticut and Rhode Island -- also succeeded in becoming self-governing simply by asserting that they were beyond any governmental authority, and then setting up their own political system modeled after that of the Pilgrims at Plymouth.

In only two cases was the self-government provision omitted. These were New York, which was granted to Charles II's brother, the Duke of York (later to become King James II); and Georgia, which was granted to a group of "trustees." In both instances the provisions for governance were short-lived, for the colonists demanded legislative representation so insistently that the authorities soon yielded.

Eventually most colonies became royal colonies, but in the mid-17th century, the English were too distracted by the Civil War (1642-1649) and Oliver Cromwell's Puritan Commonwealth and Protectorate to pursue an effective colonial policy. After the restoration of Charles II and the Stuart dynasty in 1660, England had more opportunity to attend to colonial administration. Even then, however, it was inefficient and lacked a coherent plan, and the colonies were left largely to their own devices.

The remoteness afforded by a vast ocean also made control of the colonies difficult. Added to this was the character of life itself in early America. From countries limited in space and dotted with populous towns, the settlers had come to a land of seemingly unending reach. On such a continent, natural conditions promoted a tough individualism, as people became used to making their own decisions. Government penetrated the back country only slowly, and conditions of anarchy often prevailed on the frontier.

Yet, the assumption of self-government in the colonies did not go entirely unchallenged. In the 1670s, the Lords of Trade and Plantations, a royal committee established to enforce the mercantile system on the colonies, moved to annul the Massachusetts Bay charter, because the colony was resisting the government's economic policy. James II in 1685 approved a proposal to create a Dominion of New England and place colonies south through New Jersey under its jurisdiction, thereby tightening the Crown's control over the whole region. A royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, levied taxes by executive order, implemented a number of other harsh measures and jailed those who resisted.

When news of the Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) that deposed James II reached Boston, the population rebelled and imprisoned Andros. Under a new charter, Massachusetts and Plymouth were united for the first time in 1691 as the royal colony of Massachusetts Bay. The other colonies that had come under the Dominion of New England quickly reinstalled their previous governments.

The Glorious Revolution had other positive effects on the colonies. The Bill of Rights and Toleration Act of 1689 affirmed freedom of worship for Christians and enforced limits on the Crown. Equally important, John Locke's Second Treatise on Government (1690) set forth a theory of government based not on divine right but on contract, and contended that the people, endowed with natural rights of life, liberty and property, had the right to rebel when governments violated these natural rights.

Colonial politics in the early 18th century resembled English politics in the 17th. The Glorious Revolution affirmed the supremacy of Parliament, but colonial governors sought to exercise powers in the colonies that the king had lost in England. The colonial assemblies, aware of events in England, attempted to assert their "rights" and "liberties." By the early 18th century, the colonial legislatures held two significant powers similar to those held by the English Parliament: the right to vote on taxes and expenditures, and the right to initiate legislation rather than merely act on proposals of the governor.

The legislatures used these rights to check the power of royal governors and to pass other measures to expand their power and influence. The recurring clashes between governor and assembly worked increasingly to awaken the colonists to the divergence between American and English interests. In many cases, the royal authorities did not understand the importance of what the colonial assemblies were doing and simply neglected them. However, these acts established precedents and principles and eventually became part of the "constitution" of the colonies.

In this way, the colonial legislatures established the right of self- government. In time, the center of colonial administration shifted from London to the provincial capitals.

THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR

France and Britain engaged in a succession of wars in Europe and the Caribbean at several intervals in the 18th century. Though Britain secured certain advantages from them -- primarily in the sugar-rich islands of the Caribbean -- the struggles were generally indecisive, and France remained in a powerful position in North America at the beginning of the Seven Years War in 1754.

By that time France had established a strong relationship with a number of Indian tribes in Canada and along the Great Lakes, taken possession of the Mississippi River and, by establishing a line of forts and trading posts, marked out a great crescent-shaped empire stretching from Quebec to New Orleans. Thus, the British were confined to the narrow belt east of the Appalachian Mountains. The French threatened not only the British Empire but the American colonists themselves, for in holding the Mississippi Valley, France could limit their westward expansion.

An armed clash took place in 1754 at Fort Duquesne, the site where Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is now located, between a band of French regulars and Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington, a Virginia planter and surveyor.

In London, the Board of Trade attempted to deal with the conflict by calling a meeting of representatives from New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and the New England colonies. From June 19 to July 10, the Albany Congress, as it came to be known, met with the Iroquois at Albany, New York, in order to improve relations with them and secure their loyalty to the British.

The delegates also declared a union of the American colonies "absolutely necessary for their preservation," and adopted the Albany Plan of Union. Drafted by Benjamin Franklin, the plan provided that a president appointed by the king act with a grand council of delegates chosen by the assemblies, with each colony to be represented in proportion to its financial contributions to the general treasury. This organ would have charge of defense, Indian relations, and trade and settlement of the west, as well as having the power to levy taxes. But none of the colonies accepted Franklin's plan, for none wished to surrender either the power of taxation or control over the development of the western lands to a central authority.

England's superior strategic position and her competent leadership ultimately brought victory in the Seven Years' War, only a modest portion of which was fought in the Western Hemisphere.

In the Peace of Paris, signed in 1763, France relinquished all of Canada, the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi Valley to the British. The dream of a French empire in North America was over. Having triumphed over France, Britain was now compelled to face a problem that it had hitherto neglected -- the governance of its empire. It was essential that London organize its now vast possessions to facilitate defense, reconcile the divergent interests of different areas and peoples, and distribute more evenly the cost of imperial administration.

In North America alone, British territories had more than doubled. To the narrow strip along the Atlantic coast had been added the vast expanse of Canada and the territory between the Mississippi River and the Allegheny Mountains, an empire in itself. A population that had been predominantly Protestant and English now included French-speaking Catholics from Quebec, and large numbers of partly Christianized Indians. Defense and administration of the new territories, as well as of the old, would require huge sums of money and increased personnel. The old colonial system was obviously inadequate to these tasks.

SIDEBAR: THE WITCHES OF SALEM

In 1692 a group of adolescent girls in Salem Village, Massachusetts, became subject to strange fits after hearing tales told by a West Indian slave. When they were questioned, they accused several women of being witches who were tormenting them. The townspeople were appalled but not surprised: belief in witchcraft was widespread throughout 17th-century America and Europe.

What happened next -- although an isolated event in American history -- provides a vivid window into the social and psychological world of Puritan New England. Town officials convened a court to hear the charges of witchcraft, and swiftly convicted and executed a tavernkeeper, Bridget Bishop. Within a month, five other women had been convicted and hanged.

Nevertheless, the hysteria grew, in large measure because the court permitted witnesses to testify that they had seen the accused as spirits or in visions. By its very nature, such "spectral evidence" was especially dangerous, because it could be neither verified nor subject to objective examination. By the fall of 1692, more than 20 victims, including several men, had been executed, and more than 100 others were in jail -- among them some of the town's most prominent citizens. But now the hysteria threatened to spread beyond Salem, and ministers throughout the colony called for an end to the trials. The governor of the colony agreed and dismissed the court. Those still in jail were later acquitted or given reprieves.

The Salem witch trials have long fascinated Americans. On a psychological level, most historians agree that Salem Village in 1692 was seized by a kind of public hysteria, fueled by a genuine belief in the existence of witchcraft. They point out that, while some of the girls may have been acting, many responsible adults became caught up in the frenzy as well.

But even more revealing is a closer analysis of the identities of the accused and the accusers. Salem Village, like much of colonial New England at that time, was undergoing an economic and political transition from a largely agrarian, Puritan-dominated community to a more commercial, secular society. Many of the accusers were representatives of a traditional way of life tied to farming and the church, whereas a number of the accused witches were members of the rising commercial class of small shopkeepers and tradesmen. Salem's obscure struggle for social and political power between older traditional groups and a newer commercial class was one repeated in communities throughout American history . But it took a bizarre and deadly detour when its citizens were swept up by the conviction that the devil was loose in their homes.

The Salem witch trials also serve as a dramatic parable of the deadly consequences of making sensational, but false, charges. Indeed, a frequent term in political debate for making false accusations against a large number of people is "witch hunt."

It never hurts to be well-informed with the latest on The Colonial Period. Compare what you've learned here to future articles so that you can stay alert to changes in the area of The Colonial Period.

Warren, Rhode Island

Rhode Island, is a state in the New England region of the United States. Despite being one of the smallest states in the United States, it is one of the most popular tourist destinations across the American nation. Apart from bordering Connecticut to the west and Massachusetts to the north and east, Rhode Island also shares a water border with New York to the southwest.

Warren is a place located in Bristol County, Rhode Island, United States. Historically, this section of the site of the village Pokanoket Sowams Peninsula, which is now known as Mount Hope neck. The area was discovered by Europeans in the year 1621.

The English settlement began in the east of the village. In 1653, Massasoit sold along with the son of some settlers of Plymouth Colony, the area now known as Warren, together with parts of Barrington, Swansea and Rehoboth. In 1668 the town receivedofficially incorporated in the name of Sowams.

The town of Warren got ceded from Massachusetts to Rhode Island in the year 1747. The town got its name Warren from Admiral Sir Peter Warren, who was a British naval hero, after a triumph at Louisburg in the year 1745.

As it is, the median income of a household in this town was more than $40,000 and the median income in case of a family was more than $50,000. Also, the per capita income of the town was more than $20,000. Apart from being an area which is fast growing up as an economic hub, the place also offers a lot in terms of education for your kids. Some of the best schools in the area include Hugh Cole School, Raggedy Ann Nursery School, Hugh Cole School, Mary V. Quirk School, Kickemuit Middle School, Our Lady of Fatima High School as well as Child Care Connection.

For those who love to eat out, Johnston offers a number of ways, to tickle your taste palates. Some of the best restaurants in this area are Country Inn, Crossroads Restaurant, Feast Or Famine , Jack's Family Restaurant , Perella's Ristorante, Warren House of Pizza and Wharf Tavern. As you eat out in these restaurants, you might find it to be the best culinary experience of your life.

As far as shopaholics are concerned, Johnston is not left behind in this field either. It is home to several shopping stores and departmental stores like Useful Things, Anissa's Children's Shop, Bradford Mercantile, Yankee Consignment, Summerwood, Noahs Ark Animal Workshop and Ancestral Antiques.

An Historical RI Walking Tour Rooted in the Apple Tree That Consumed Roger Williams

An historical walking tour of cultural and architectural magnitude along Benefit Street in the capital city of Providence, must first root itself in the seed of Rhode Island's founding by Roger Williams. Radical religious beliefs put this Protestant theologian at odds with the Church of England and also with the flock who boarded the Lyon in December, 1631, and settled in Boston of the New World. Roger stirred up a tempest as tumultuous as any storm brewing along the Atlantic by espousing three principles dear to his heart: separatism, freedom of religion, and separation of church and state. Furthermore, his study of the Native Americans caused him to doubt the validity of the King's colonial charters, whereby he wrote a lengthy tract to the Massachusetts governor in 1632, advocating the purchase of land from the Indians.

By 1635, Williams was tried by the General Court and convicted of sedition and heresy. Ordered to be banished, illness delayed execution of this decree. Nevertheless, he skipped town in 1636, trudging through the deep snow on a 105 mile trek from Salem to the head of Narragansett Bay where he received a hearty welcome by the Wampanoags. Fearing extradition of the expatriate, a band of supporters invited the fugitive to cross the Seekonk River. Roger Williams named this settlement which began with twelve friends, "Providence," whose meaning stemmed from "divine help from God."

Roger Williams served as governor of the colony from 1654 through 1658, and is believed to have died sometime between January 28 and March 15, 1683 with a burial on his own property. Fifty years later, his house collapsed into the cellar, and the gravesite for such a prominent man was forgotten until 1860 when Zachariah Allen sought to locate the remains of the first governor. This endeavor bordered on the bizarre: "The root of an apple tree was discovered. This tree had pushed downwards one of its main roots in a sloping direction and nearly straight course towards the precise spot that had been occupied by the skull of Roger Williams. There making a turn conforming with its circumference, the root followed the direction of the back bone to the hips, and thence divided into two branches, each one following a leg bone to the heel..." (Report Upon the Burial Place of Roger Williams by Howard M. Chapin; published in Providence, 1918). In the King's English, the apple tree root bore a strong resemblance to the outline of the skeleton belonging to Rhode Island's founding father.

The apple tree root is now regarded as a curio and kept by the Rhode Island Historical Society at the John Brown House Museum (52 Power Street, corner of Benefit). Group, school, and special tours are available by appointment. Call (401) 273-7507 for scheduling and inquiring about hours open to the public. As long as you're in the vicinity of the apple tree root that consumed Roger Williams, you should "branch" out to other noteworthy historical landmarks of cultural and architectural magnitude within walking distance along Benefit Street in Providence, the city so lovingly named by its founding father:

The Rhode Island Historical Society: Benefit Street, A Mile of History - Ongoing programs, exhibits and opportunities where one can absorb over three centuries of history while taking in the beautiful surroundings of 18th and 19th century architecture, art installations and sculpture, gardens and riverfront activities, and the vibrant rhythm of the surrounding urban neighborhoods. Regularly scheduled walking tours and themed walks are available to conventions and special groups, or with advanced reservations. (401) 273-7507

The Shunned House (135 Benefit Street): The Stephen Harris House built in 1763, was made famous by Providence writer H.P. Lovecraft. People died there in alarmingly great numbers perhaps because of the dampness and fungous growth in the cellar, the general sickish smell, the draughts of the hallways, or the quality of the well and pump water - hence "shunned."

The Rhode Island School of Design Museum (224 Benefit Street): Also known as the RISD Museum, Rhode Island's leading museum of fine and decorative art, houses a collection of 84,000 objects of international significance. It is southeastern New England's only comprehensive art museum and is accredited by the American Association of Museums.

The Providence Athenaeum (251 Benefit Street): The fourth oldest library in the United States (1753) - neither a public library, nor an academic library, nor a community center, nor a private club - it is a little bit of all these things and more. (401) 421-6970

The Nightingale-Brown House (357 Benefit Street): The museum collections in the house represent and link each of the five generations of the Brown family. The butler's pantry contains more than 100 pieces of Canton China, possibly imported to Providence aboard Brown family merchant vessels in the eighteenth century and used by the family. (401) 863-1177

The First Unitarian Church of Providence (1 Benevolent Street, corner of Benefit): The third church and present building, dedicated in 1816, was designed by distinguished local master-builder-architect, John Holden Greene, whose many fine buildings changed the face of Providence during the early nineteenth century. (401) 421 - 7920

An historical walking tour deeply rooted in the apple tree oddity that consumed Rhode Island's founder, Roger Williams, naturally branches to other architectural and cultural landmarks of prominence dotted along Benefit Street in the capital city of Providence. A Rhode Romp in this vicinity by native Rhode Islanders and out-of-towners constitutes a visual odyssey sure to bear fruit as the apple of one's eye.

The Costa Brava: Leaving The Package Tour On The Shelf

Rock-strewn coves where idle chat and laughter rebounds off the cliffs. Tranquil bays where soft-lapping waves cool sun-baked feet. Secret caves and labyrinthine tunnels head for exciting hidden beaches. Turquoise waters, clear as glass but for the stirring of the breeze. Towering cliff faces, age-old and craggy, spurting tenacious pines. Weathered rock formations jut into the sea, like the extended necks of great dinosaurs.

You are surrounded by an aura of calm and indisputable beauty. The sun kisses your cheeks; the salty breeze stings your lips. The aroma of fresh fish sizzling on the barbeque dances a jig across your taste buds and the sound of popping corks is sucked up into the cliffs, mingling with the laughter and idle chat.

What is this place that radiates such stunning beauty? Some place far away, a tropical island, perhaps?

No! It's Spain's Costa Brava, and it's only a two hour flight from the UK.

Mention the Costa Brava to anyone thinking of booking their summer holiday and you may be met with a raised eyebrow or two.

Sadly, tourist demand on this coast throughout the decades led to over development and 'Britainisation' - burger bar littered promenades, all day English breakfasts, fish 'n' chips, and of course, high rise concrete jungles to store the travellers during their two week package of sunburn and lager.

The Costa Brava was the birthplace of the package tour. This is where it all started in the 1950s when hoards of tourists arrived in old warplanes and laid out their beach towels for the first time. They took their fill of the sun, mile-long beaches and free-flowing wine of which they were deprived at home, then bundled their straw donkeys under their arms and exchanged the baton with the next consignment fresh off the plane.

Of course, this influx of tourists brought advantages for the Spanish locals: shop owners, villagers and property developers were to be overwhelmed by the opportunities on offer. Jobs were now available for non-skilled workers, and for the artisan, the interest in their products meant that they could barely keep up with demand. But perhaps the effect was not all positive.

Some of the more popular resorts started to lose their true cultural identity. The intrinsic gastronomy moved aside to make room for the fast-food demands of the tourists. Raw, impromptu displays of traditional song and dance dissolved into staged, commercialised pay-at-the-door twice-nightly performances. Uninterrupted mountain-to-coast scenery was blasted away to make room for high rise cellblocks.

Then towards the end of the eighties and into the nineties, changes started to occur. Local governments started to clean up their resorts. They began to promote their beautiful regions for what they were: places of cultural interest, somewhere to experience age-old traditions, exhilarating fiestas, and mouth-watering cuisine. A shift back to customary values was starting to emerge.

Full circle, what the traveller initially sought from Spain way before the tourist boom -- endless views from mountain to sea -- the fun of trying to communicate in a different language -- the delight of trying unfamiliar cuisine -- and generally a get away from the British norm, has now become important all over again.

At the same time, package tours to the Costas are on the decline. Some of Britain's biggest travel firms have recently been axing thousands of Spanish holidays from their brochures.

Spain remains a hugely popular tourist destination, however. But it is now attracting a different type of tourist.

Thankfully, it is shaking off the reputation that labelled the Costas so unfairly, and is welcoming with open arms the discerning tourist.

The traveller who turns their nose up at the package tour is the independent type who arranges their holiday to suit themselves, hand-picking their accommodation and board, selecting their means of travel from the various on offer and choosing the dates, times and length of stay that suits them. Thankfully, this is the type of tourist that many resorts on the Costa Brava are now attracting.

Yes, there are still a few more animated resorts on this coastline that starts on the French border at Port Bou and descends to Blanes, not far from Barcelona. And let them have their fun! Why not? As long as you do your homework before you book your holiday on the Costa Brava, you'll be ok. If you want lively, go to Lloret de Mar, Blanes, Platja D'Aro or S'Agaro. This is where you'll find your amusement arcades and water parks, and of course, bustling nightlife.

If you want to experience the sheer beauty of this stunning coastline; sample the delights of the world renowned Catalan Cuisine and taste bud stimulating fish and seafood; if you want to drink in the culture and appreciate scenery unobliterated by high rise buildings, to walk the paths where artists like Picasso, Dali and Chagall walked themselves in years past, gathering inspiration for their work, then try one of these delightful resorts:

Tossa de Mar http://www.tossacostabrava.com/

Tossa de Mar is a quaint and lovely resort neighbouring one of the more lively and well-known resorts, Lloret de Mar. Tossa is steeped in history, and overlooked by a wonderful castle that blends seamlessly into the town. The turrets of this old walled town date back to the 12th Century and dominate most of the views throughout the town. In Tossa there are strictly no high-rise buildings, so the stunning views remain unspoilt. Here there is a certain ambience that draws people back year after year. There are plenty of delightful, quality restaurants, most of which specialise in fish and seafood. The nightlife is formed of enjoyable little bars and is not at all boisterous, with only two discos neatly tucked away into the background.

Sant Feliu de Guixols This town is at the heart of the Costa Brava, surrounded by pine and oak-filled woods. It has seen some commercialisation, but perhaps not as much as Platja D'Aro and S'Agaro. Of particular notability here is the hermitage of Sant Grau and the Gothic church with its celebrated iron gate, the Porta Ferrada. Water sports lovers are well catered for here, particularly in the nearby cove of Cala Salions.

Roses Travelling south from the Costa Brava's first resort Port Bou, you'll find this delightful town. Roses has a 16th Century fortress which, although in ruins, is still of great architectural interest. Also here are the remains of the Greek settlement of Rhode. Its fishing port is one of the leaders on this coast and offers a lively nightlife at its marina.

Figueres A few kilometres inland from Roses in the heart of Catalonia you'll find Figueres, best-known as the birthplace of surrealist artist Salvador Dali. The town is much visited for its Dali Museum, where the artist is buried. Figueres is also the birthplace of the Sardana dance, the traditional dance of Catalonia. Also of interest in Figueres is the castle fortress of Sant Ferran, the parish church of Sant Pere, the Museum of l'Emporda and the Toy Museum.

L'Escala Back on the coast, L'Escala is a small holiday resort at the southern end of the Gulf of Roses. It is a delightful fishing village well known for its delicious sardines. The resort offers much for the water sport enthusiast, two yacht clubs and a number of marinas. This is also the point of entry to the Roman colony of Empúries, the most visited archaeological site in Catalonia.

Girona Girona, inland and south of L'Escala, is the Costa Brava capital. It is split into two by The River Onyar.

The old quarter is highlighted by the Cathedral, which, like many of Spain's cathedrals, is a fusion of many different historical periods and styles. Also worthy of a visit is the Jewish Quarter, with its winding streets shaded by tall, stone walls and offering an abundance of shops.

The Twelfth Century Arab Baths, the old City Walls, and the museums of archaeology and history are of notable interest whilst the churches of Sant Nicolau, Sant Feliu and Sant Pere de Galligants highlight the religious background of the region.

Getting to the Costa Brava

There are two major airports serving this region: Barcelona and Girona. Girona is the more popular choice, particularly for the more northern resorts on the coast, with average transfer times of one hour.

The low cost airlines offer several flights a day to both Girona and Barcelona. There are also a range of scheduled and charter flights to choose from. Other travel options include taking a ferry from Plymouth to Santander or from Portsmouth to Bilbao, then taking the train or driving down through Spain.

There is also the option of taking a coach to Barcelona and Girona, or letting the train take the strain by taking the Eurostar to Paris, then follow the TGV Atlantique route to Barcelona or take the Elipsos service to Girona.

Staying on the Costa Brava

Hotels, hostels, apartments and campsites abound. There is a range of accommodation to choose from, ranging from luxurious to basic. Visit the websites for each resort for recommendations.

Eating on the Costa Brava Most coastal resorts are awash with fish and seafood restaurants but of course, there are eateries catering for all tastes. If you want to try real Catalan cuisine, renowned throughout the world for its diversity, then look for some of these dishes: Escalivada (baked vegetable salad), Rovellons a la llauna (wild mushrooms), Pa amb tomaquet (toasted bread rubbed with tomato, garlic and olive oil), Botifarra amb mongetes (sausage with white beans), Cargols a la llauna (snails), Graellada de peix i marisc (grilled fish and seafood), Sarsuela and suquet de peix (fish casserole), Romesco (spicy sauce).

And for dessert...Bunyols (fritters), Crema cremada (caramelized custard cream), Panellets (marzipan cakes), Torrons (almond sweets), Tortells (pastry rings).

When to go On the Costa Brava, you'll find a slightly gentler climate than on the more southerly Costas. Temperatures soar during July and August, reaching high twenties and early thirties. May, June and September are perfect if you love the sun but prefer a more bearable climate. Spring and autumn remain nicely warm, but if you are looking for winter sun, you'll need to venture further down south.

Like all the other regions of Spain, Catalonia celebrates its fair share of fiestas. Each town has its own traditional celebrations and the cultural programmes for each resort are usually available from the local tourist offices. Many are based around religions celebrations, but some also include age old pagan traditions. But whatever their roots, you can be sure that once you indulge into the true spirit, you'll find yourself wanting more!

Why not do some research and time your visit to coincide with a fiesta?

Perhaps one of Catalonia's most important feasts is that of Sant Jordi - Saint George - the patron saint of Catalonia. On this day, couples exchange books and roses, and in Barcelona you'll find Las Ramblas lined with stall upon stall of books. It is the equivalent of the UK Valentines Day.

The Region's National Day is 11 September and is celebrated with Castellers and Sardanas.

Castellers means castle builders and involves teams of enthusiasts forming impressive human towers -- castells -- that can be up to ten people high.

The Sardana is a very old dance, which is truly Catalan. It is an open dance that can be joined and left again at any time. It is danced in a circle, holding hands up in the air and coordinating the steps in accordance with a complex set of rules.

The Costa Brava: once a package tour hotspot, now a haven for the discerning tourist. Natural beauty; historic monuments; artistic heritage. The rugged coast awaits you!

Mold Remediation - Tips to Keep Your House Mold Free

You take immense pride in your tasteful and elegant interiors. Your house is a beacon of beauty, rather how a house should be except for that tiny leakage which is yet to be attended and also that sprawling colony of mold making inroads onto your picture perfect walls and ceiling.

Think you can stretch not fixing that problem for one more day? Think again!

The molds don't show any mercy when it latches on to your bare, smooth surfaced walls. It recklessly treads on and leaves you with molds and well, more ugly molds. However, unlike popular imagination as Hollywood would project, molds aren't any alien invasion bent on destroying towns. But if left unattended, it sure can cause you some health problems along with leaving your house scar faced.

Soak the problem:

It's been noticed that seven out of ten times it results due to dampness or incursion of water in your house. Yes that includes that leaking faucet, or that tiny puddle that the rains left behind on your roof top. Most of the growths are caused by leaks that weren't repaired properly. So, if you suspect your house could be susceptible to a history of water damage, like floods or leaks, get it inspected pronto.

Your dusty basement, or that unused attic, even that quiet corner of crawling space are some of the best place to catch the spores growing uninhibited. But don't let that blind you to certain worst case scenarios such as acoustical ceiling tiles, under carpets, between pillars and tiny cracks.

Although most of the molds encountered are of harmless type, however, in the case of devastating floods like Hurricane Katrina, the aftermath can be threateningly disastrous as climatic conditions further aggravate the situation. Since the growth is a slow process, it can be nipped in the bud if located at the right time.

A step by step plan for yearlong freedom:

* Play the detective-Check your house for any leaks or formations. If you plan to buy that gorgeous villa, get details about any previous water problems in the house so as to avoid putting a damp cloth on your grandiose designs.

* Don't leave it to the rain gods-Do not mistake specific seasons alone to play havoc. Molds don't hibernate in winter, nor does it vacation in summer. So keep track of early signs specifically in places like basement, attics, shower space or bathrooms, area near the water pipes.

* Fix it quick-Put to rest any possibilities that can be a trigger factor. So pick that phone and call the repairman if you find a leakage in the plumbing, improper ventilation, clogs, roof or ceiling leaks, minor cracks and the like.

* Become the terminator-Once you have identified growth formation, do not waste time. First and foremost dry up its survival line, i.e., cut off the water source. Follow it up with a powerful cleaning product. If the stains are larger in area, do not try self medication. Call a remediation expert.

* Dress up new-Once the problem has been curbed and rectified, let the area dry completely and thoroughly. To prevent it from reappearing, apply the area with a mold primer. And finally repaint.

The next time you see a battle of invasion, don't get frightened. Seek more information and follow these tips.

Religious Freedom in British North American Colonies Before 1700

Many of the British American colonies that eventually formed a part of the USA were populated by European settlers, who were persecuted for their religious beliefs back home, but they held on passionately to their beliefs. They supported their leaders who dreamed of 'city on hill' and had a great faith in the 'religious experiment' that could be successfully realized in the wilderness of America.

The settlers had a missionary vision of their church even in colonies like Virginia, planned as commercial venture. The entrepreneurs there saw themselves as militant Protestants working towards the glory of their church.

However, the settlers practiced not one but diverse religions before the 18th century and the issue of religious freedom depended largely on the political and religious stance of the region in which they lived.

Before 1700, the British North American colonies differed on the extent of religious freedom in the New world. There were three regional orders, New England, Middle colonies and the South within the colonial empire. Most of the settlers in these colonies were of English origin on whom applied the different Acts of British Empire. Puritanism was predominant in New England. The mid-Atlantic colonies had a majority population of the Quakers. The population in South was oriented more to commerce and enterprise, than religion.

When we speak of religious freedom, we mean the right granted legally to individuals to practice and preach religion. It also means not being persecuted for holding any form of religious beliefs. These regions demonstrated fairly tolerant approach to religion, but we also notice a gap between what was stated and practiced on religious freedom, at the same time. The New England region consisted of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut. The English Puritans came to settle in large numbers in this area between 1620 and 1640. They had been originally persecuted in their homeland by state and church. The Puritans thought they were the chosen ones by God for salvation and not everyone could belong to their order. The extreme Puritans were known as Separatists, who left for the New World in 1620. The Puritans set up a government with the aim expressed in the statement, "The whole purpose of the Government was to enforce God's laws."

In the South, Protestant religion was overwhelmingly predominant. However, the religious and political authorities distinctly discriminated against them. Rebel leaders like Anne Hutchinson and Roger Williams challenged the authority of Puritan clergy and leaders.

The first colony formed in Massachusetts in 1608 provides us an example of religious freedom. Plymouth, Massachusetts was a colony formed by English Separatists (also known as Puritans) who made an attempt to live without any form of religious discrimination.

New colonies that came into existence prior to 1700 consisted largely of people who were persecuted for their religious beliefs. Therefore, the colonists took upon themselves to build an order where religion was a matter of personal faith and belief rather than state imposition. However, some of the colonies, especially the northern colonies deviated from this goal and imitated the British model that combined state and church.

The New England colonies that included New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were conceived and established as 'plantations of religion.'Although some settlers arrived here with secular motives, a majority left Europe to worship God in the way they believed correct.

The Middle colonies were ethnically diverse. Moreover, each colony had its own perspective on religious issues. For instance, Williams openly supported freedom of religion and even such outcasts, as Quakers were acceptable to him. His ideas on separation of state and church were so repugnant that he was declared a heretic and banished out of the Massachusetts Bay colony.

A small group of Puritans and the others in the South felt free to worship without persecution.

The religion developed in varied patterns in the colonies. In Massachusetts, the religious theocracy of the Puritanism was dominant. On the other hand, the Rhode Island allowed full religious freedom. Initially, Baptists were in majority there, but other sects were soon in evidence. Some of the other colonies like New Jersey and South Carolina also allowed complete religious freedom. Colonies as Maryland and Pennsylvania can be said to have been fairly tolerant. We also notice shifting religious preferences in some of these colonies. As for instance, Maryland, at first a haven for Catholics, and Pennsylvania, a haven for Quakers originally, had numerous Anglicans settled within a few decades. Anglicans as well as Presbyterians were also quite populous in further South.

We can say finally that the idea of holy Trinity lay at the foundation of religious belief. If a religion had an allegiance to the notion of Trinity, it was relatively free to worship and practice its religion and the Puritans were especially intolerant.

A Tourist Guide to Williamsburg and Hampton Roads Sights

Colonial Williamsburg, 101 Visitor Center Drive, Williamsburg, Virginia:

Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia's top tourist attraction and the state's second capital after Jamestown, is like entering a time portal to the colonial era. Founded in 1699, it had been conceived as a prestigious, sophisticated gathering place because of its chosen location next to the College of William and Mary.

As in any town, its citizens had pursued daily mercantile activities, providing functions, goods, and services in exchange for the salaries they themselves had needed to purchase those goods and services. Craftsmen had practiced their trades: blacksmiths, coopers, shoemakers, printers, gunsmith, cabinetmakers, and wigmakers had all made vital contributions to the community's continued existence, while the remainder of the people had engaged in military and governmental pursuits.

Transportation had been provided by horse-drawn wagons and carriages, as evidenced even today by ubiquitous clompings on the dirt streets.

Several buildings had been nucleic to life. The Peyton-Randolph House and kitchen, for example, had once been the home of one of Virginia's leading politicians and the scene of numerous social and political gatherings. Civil and criminal cases had been tried at the Courthouse. The circular, brick Magazine had served as Williamsburg's arsenal and had stored arms and gunpowder on its upper level. The Printing Office and Bookbinding shop had been instrumental in pre-Revolution information distribution. The James Anderson Blacksmith shop had repaired arms for American forces. In 1776, the patriots of Virginia had voted for independence in the Capitol and a new state constitution had been drafted there. The government had conducted war over a five-year period from this location and legislation had created the Republican party within its walls.

The Governor's Palace, the city's most opulent structure, had been the residence of several royal governors and the first two elected governors of the new sovereign state of Virginia, and today retains the appearance of the home of Lord Dunmore, the last British governor to have lived there on the eve of the Revolution.

As in the current day, men often met in taverns to drink and discuss business.

The town, associated with such names as Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, and George Washington, had offered little manufacturing, but instead had acted as the political and economic center of Virginia for 80 years, having been England's largest and wealthiest colony--the location of enacted laws and administered justice, and the site where the seeds of democracy and political independence had been planted in an ultimate attempt to separate itself from its source.

Williamsburg had thrived until Virginia's capital had been relocated to Richmond in 1780, whereafter it had declined to a backwater town.

The town's slow rebirth began in 1926 when the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation had been established to excavate buried foundations and reconstruct the crumbling buildings which had still stood, ultimately transforming it into the world's largest, 18th-century living history museum comprised of 88 restored structures and some 500 other reconstructed ones spread over 301 acres.

Colonial Williamsburg is once again alive: the buildings can be visited; the pounding of the glowing anvil can be heard in the blacksmith shop; cases can be heard in the courthouse; costumed interpreters reenact scenes from earlier life; soldiers march down Duke of Gloucester Street; meals can be eaten in four historic taverns; 18th-century goods are made and sold in the numerous shops; and horse-drawn carriages still clomp down the unpaved streets.

An extensive Visitor's Center, replete with gift shops, bookstores, and theaters where the introductory film, "Williamsburg: Story of a Patriot," is shown, provides the threshold to this colonial era, and is the departure point of the shuttle buses which periodically take visitors to the city's two entry points. At least two full days are needed to visit Williamsburg's significant buildings, observe its costumed "citizens" at work, witness their numerous reenactments, peruse the museums, shop for period items, eat in the taverns, and partake of the evening entertainment programs. A hefty entrance fee provides access to most of these sights and events, although "add-ons" are required for certain buildings and programs, and prices vary according to the number of days the passes cover.

Historic Jamestowne, Jamestown, Virginia:
Thirteen years before the Pilgrims had even set foot in Plymouth, Massachusetts, 104 English men and boys, representing the Virginia Company of London, had made the four-and-a-half month ocean voyage in three ships designated the Susan Constant, the Discovery, and the Godspeed from London, and landed on the banks of the James River in current-day Virginia, establishing the first permanent English settlement in North America. The date, May 13, 1607, can be considered "one small step for European-kind," but had ultimately served as the threshold to the United States of America.

In 1994, archaeologists had begun a search for the settlement's original location and two years later they had uncovered sufficient evidence to determine that the James Fort had been built on a small island on the banks of the James River originally separated from the mainland by a narrow isthmus. The site, designated Historic Jamestowne and administered by the National Park Service, can be visited.

Subdivided into Old Towne and New Towne sections, the former contains the site of the original, 1607, triangular-shaped fort whose foundation is roughly outlined by brick, and a 17th-century church and tower, while the latter, located past the Tercentenary Monument, sports brick replicas to mark excavation foundations of the expanded settlement.

Jamestown Settlement, Route 31, Off Colonial Parkway:
Jamestown Settlement, located a mile from the original site, recreates several key features of it. A huge, red brick Visitors Center, with reception, cafeteria, gift shop, interpretive galleries, and films, leads to the outdoor path which winds its way to the docks on the James River.

The first of the recreated scenes, a Powhatan Indian village based upon the archaeological findings of a site once occupied by the Paspahegh tribe, features hide-covered sleeping and storage houses, a ceremonial circle, hide-tanning frames, and planting fields.

The triangular-shaped James Fort, located further down the path, had been the first home of the original settlers and features recreated, wattle-and-daub, thatched-roof structures, a storehouse, a church, a guard court, and three bulwarks. Daily reenactments demonstrate carpentry, agriculture, rifle shooting, blacksmithing, and cooking.

The Riverfront Discovery Area offers insight into how water had provided the core of commonality for different 17th-century cultures, all of which had relied upon it for fishing, transportation, boat building, and trading.

The three ship replicas docked in the harbor represent the lifelines of the English colonists, the largest of which is the 110-foot-long, square-rigged Susan Constant. Crew had lived and worked on its main deck, while passengers and cargo had been accommodated below.

Jamestown Settlement complements Historic Jamestowne with visual, full-size replicas of excavations just rising from the ground at the original site.

Yorktown Battlefield, Route 238:
Jamestown had served as America's origin. Williamsburg had served as the pivot of governmental development, the cradle where the American Revolution's forefathers had been nurtured. One more location, however, would serve as the point where that Revolution had led to victory, separation, and independence.

While the French naval fleet had sailed southward toward the Chesapeake Bay during the latter portion of 1781, General George Washington had believed that the optimum opportunity for a decisive land-and-sea battle had been at hand and, in cooperation with French General Rochenbeau, had quietly relocated both American and French troops from New York to Yorktown, Virginia.

Intercepting British ships outside of the Virginia Cape on September 5, the French had succeeded in blockading them and causing their subsequent retreat. Arriving in Yorktown later that month, Washington and Rochenbeau seized the town, surrounding Lord Cornwallis' British troops.

In early October, Washington dug trenches from which to launch an out-and-out attack, American and French detachments subsequently cornering the two British redoubts on October 14, which had rapidly exhausted their ammunition supplies. Defeated, Cornwallis surrendered five days later, ending the six-year Revolution and effectively beginning a new nation and a new government.

The settlers who had put the first English footprint in Jamestown had now just put the first American one in Yorktown.

Yorktown Battlefield, the actual site of the historical event and reconstructed with the aid of 18th-century military maps and excavations, accurately depicts Washington's siege, pinpointing British and American troop locations. The nearby Moore House had been the location of the surrender term negotiations.

Yorktown Victory Center, Route 238:
Life during and after the Revolution can be gleaned from the Yorktown Victory Center, which depicts a recreated Continental Army encampment and a 1780 tidewater Virginia farm. The former encompasses commanding officer and regimental surgeon quarters and several soldiers' tents, while the latter features dwellings, a tobacco barn, a kitchen, a herb and vegetable garden, and an agricultural area where corn, tobacco, cotton and flax cultivation.

York Town, the third of three sites in Williamsburg and Jamestown, Virginia is part of the "historic triangle", linking with the 23-mile parallel James and York River Scenic Byway, and is part of Colonial National Historical Park Established in 1893, when the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities Iceland had acquired 22.5 hectares of James Town, which had createdColonial National Monument including Jamestown, Yorktown, and the connection line Parkway in 1930. The National Park Service has the remaining 1,500 hectares of the island four years later.

Busch Gardens, Route 60 East, Williamsburg, Virginia:
Apart from the historical sites the same triangle, indicative of the attractions in Williamsburg, and one that is the epitome of family fun, Busch Gardens. The most beautiful park 'in the last 18 years, this bathsuit-necessary, European-themed complex, encompassing more than 100 acres, offers rides, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues subdivided into areas representing England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, and Italy. Rides include world-class roller coasters; a 36-inch-gauge steam locomotive-propelled train which makes a 1.5-mile loop; the world's first, and floorless, dive coaster which plunges 205 feet at a 90-degree angle; and a vertically-diving log plume.

Water Country USA, 176 Water Country Parkway:
Aquatic thrills can also be experienced at Water Country USA, the mid-Atlantic's largest water park. Exuding a 1950's and 1960's surf theme, the complex offers more than 50 rides, attractions, shops, and restaurants, including the "Hubba Hubba Highway," an interactive river adventure whose free-floating ride plunges through water-sprouting coconut trees and geysers; a high-speed, twisting and turning toboggan plunge evocatively called "Meltdown," and the tunnel- and water curtain-penetrating "Aquazoid."

Ripley's Believe It or Not, 1735 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia:
Kid curiosity can be peaked at Ripley's Believe It or Not, whose more than 300 exhibits and artifacts, reflecting Robert Ripley's life philosophy of collecting and displaying odd, strange, bizarre, and, at times, unbelievable, items from ancient and exotic civilizations amassed during global travels, include prehistoric dinosaur eggs, 3,000-year-old mummified falcon remains from Egypt, shrunken heads from South America, golf balls once driven on the moon, locks of George Washington's hair, two-headed kittens, and 500-pound gorillas formed by nails. These strange effects are only exacerbated by the museum's 4-D theater.

Yankee Candle, 2200 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia:
Yankee Candle, a combination shopping and sightseeing attraction, appears to both kids and kids at heart. Aside from selling some 250,000 candles, 200 candle scents, toys, gifts, and holiday ornaments, its is a year-round winter wonderland. Its entirely indoor Holiday Park features a 25-foot, revolving Christmas tree; a color-changing ice pond; falling snow; Santa's workshop; a Christmas countdown clock; and an animated show, "Hickory, Dickory, Doc."

Haunted Dinner Theater, 5363 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia:
The Haunted Dinner Theater, another combination attraction, pairs a 71-item, all-you-can-eat dinner buffet at Captain George's Restaurant the audience with a comedy thriller contains steps to solve the night "crime." The winning combination since 1994 is running.

Air Power Park, 413 West Mercury Boulevard, Hampton, Virginia:
The Outdoor Air Power Park, in recognition of the contribution of NASA and Langley Air Force Base for air and space dedicated to the development and for their interest in community activities, has several unique aircraft to be designed, including the Lockheed T-33A T-Bird, aA-7E Corsair II, an XV-6A Kestrel V/STOL, a North American F-86L Sabre, the later-developed North American Rockwell F-100D Super Sabre, a McDonnell F-101F Voodoo, a Northrop F-89J Scorpion, and a Republic Aviation F-105D Thunderchief. Even rarer, perhaps, is its space-related collection, including an SM-78 Jupiter surface-to-surface intermediate-range ballistic missile, a Western Electric NIM-14 Nike-Hercules two-stage missile, a Jet Propulsion Lab M-2 Corporal Ballistic Missile, a North American Aviation Mercury / Little Joe booster and Mercury Test Capsule.

Mariners Museum ', 100 Museum Drive, Newport News, Virginia:
The transition from air to sea, the Museum, the Mariners' one of the world's largest and most comprehensive exhibition and more than 50 full-size boats and ships, authentic, handcrafted ship models and maritime artifacts, which are divided into eight exhibitions and galleries: Chesapeake Bay Gallery, the USS Monitor Center, Age of Discovery, the defense of the sea,Great Hall of Steam, the Nelson Touch, International Small Craft Center, and the Miniature Ships of August and Winnifred Crabtree. Its award-winning gallery, the $30 million, 63,500-square-foot USS Monitor Center, houses a full-scale replica and actual remains of one of the Civil War's most important vessels. The experience is further heightened by walk-through, high-definition "battle theaters."

The conceptual design for the United States' first full, hull and protective plating ironclad Ship powered by steam and turn a sport turrets, Ericsson United States has been submitted, the American engineer John Marina Swedish, and the resulting ship, the Monitor, USS Iceland was started January 30, 1862 from Greenport, Long. Two months later, in March was at Hampton Roads, Virginia, orderly, stationed to protect the Federal fleet, but the ninth day of the month, had engaged in a battle of four hours with a Confederate ironclad, CSSVirginia, although neither had sustained much damage.

During its New Year's Eve towing at the end of the year by the USS Rhode Island to Beaufort, North Carolina, however, it had been caught by a fierce storm off of Cape Hatteras and 16 crew members had been swept overboard and perished.

Today, most of the ship remains submerged off of North Carolina in the US's first marine sanctuary, which had been designated on January 30, 1975.

Virginia Living Museum, 524 J. Clyde Morris Boulevard, Newport News, Virginia:
While the Mariners' Museum focuses on the sea, the Virginia Living Museum showcases what lives in it, as well as on land, in settings such as a cypress swamp, a mountain cove, the Chesapeake Bay, and a limestone cave. Living exhibits include color-changing frogs, moon jellies, eyeless fish, loggerhead turtles, spider crabs, red wolves, otters, and coyotes. An extensive collection of native plants completes the flora and fauna experience.

Fort Monroe/Casemate Museum, Casemate 20, Bernard Road, Fort Monroe, Hampton, Virginia:
Fort Monroe, progressively constructed between 1819 and 1834 and located on the north side of the channel between the Chesapeake Bay and Hampton Roads, is the country's largest stone fort and only moat-surrounded, still-operating one. A Union stronghold during the Civil War, where both Robert E. Lee and Edgar Allan Poe had served, it had once sheltered thousands of slave refugees. Its present Casemate Museum, location of Confederate President Jefferson Davis's cell, displays uniforms, weapons, and artifacts collectively depicting the fort's history.

Virginia Air and Space Center, 600 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia:
The Virginia Air and Space Center, located in downtown Hampton on the waterfront, is a $30 million, 110,000 square foot, nine-story facility which had opened on April 5, 1992 and is characterized by its futuristic, interconnected, dual-building, gull wing roof-resembling architecture. Its more than 30 historic air- and spacecraft, which represent more than 100 years of flight, are exhibited in the recently completed, $9 million Adventures in Flight Gallery and the Space Gallery, and include such designs as the Apollo 12 Command Module which had made the journey to the Moon, an AirTran DC-9-30, a B-24 Liberator nose section, an F.84 Thunderstreak, an F-4E Phantom II, an N2S-3 Stearman, a Lunar Orbiter, an F-104 Starfighter, an F-106 Delta Dart, a YF-16 Fighting Falcon, and a P-39Q Aircobra. A new exhibit, "Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars, and Beyond," had recently been introduced in the Space Gallery. Extensive, hands-on exhibits, featuring hot air balloons, noise abatement, a Boeing 717 glass cockpit fight simulator, aircraft flight surfaces, propeller efficiency comparatives, and Space Shuttle landing simulators, are complemented by the Riverside IMAX and Curtiss Jenny Century of Flight Theatres.

The museum also serves as a visitors center for NASA Langley Research Center and Langley Air Force Base.

Hampton Carousel, 602 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia:
The Hampton Carousel, in downtown directly represented in the water and placed in a special pavilion was built in 1920 and is one of only 170 laps old wooden carousel in the United States.

Miss Hampton II Harbor Cruises, 710 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia:
Water, surroundedHampton Roads cannot be fully enjoyed without at least one boat cruise on it. The Miss Hampton II, a 44-passenger, dual-deck boat with a snack bar, departs daily from the Hampton Marina, plying Hampton Roads Harbor; stopping at the 1819-built Fort Wool; and tours the Norfolk Naval Base, the world's largest naval installation. Adults and kids alike are often fascinated by the 1,098-foot-long, nuclear-powered Nimitz-Class aircraft carriers which weigh in excess of 100,000 tons and are manned by 6,000 crew members; the Wasp-class amphibious assault ships; the guided missile destroyers; the Los Angeles-class, fast-attack, nuclear-powered submarines; and the Ticonderoga-class missile destroyers.